C for Beginners - Learn About C

C is a general purpose programming language invented in the early 1980s by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs. It is similar to C, invented in the early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie, but is a safer language than C and includes modern programming techniques such as object-oriented programming. You can read more about object-oriented programming. C was originally called C with Classes and is so compatible with C that it will probably compile more than 99% of C programs without changing a line of source code. This was a deliberate design feature by the designer. Here are a short overview and history of C. The purpose of C is to precisely define a series of operations that a computer can perform to accomplish a task. Most of these operations involve manipulating numbers and text, but anything that the computer can physically do can be programmed in C. Computers have no intelligence- they have to be told exactly what to do and this is defined by the programming language you use. Once programmed they can repeat the steps as many times as you wish at very high speed. Modern PCs are so fast they can count to a billion in a second or two. What Can a C Program Do? Typical programming tasks include  putting data into a database or pulling it out, displaying high-speed graphics in a game or video, controlling electronic devices attached to the PC or even playing music and/or sound effects. You can even write software to generate music or help you compose. Is C the Best Programming Language? Some computer languages were written for a specific purpose. Java was originally devised to control toasters, C for programming Operating Systems, Pascal to teach good programming techniques but C is a general purpose language and well deserves the Swiss Pocket Knife of Languages nickname. Some tasks can be done in C but not very easily, for example designing GUI screens for applications. Other languages like Visual Basic, Delphi and more recently C# have GUI design elements built into them and so are better suited for this type of task. Also, some scripting languages that provide extra programmability to applications like MS Word and even Photoshop tend to be done in variants of Basic, not C. You can find out more about the other computer languages and how they stack up against C. Which Computers Have C? This is better stated as which computers dont have C! The answer- almost none, it is so widespread. It is a nearly universal programming language and can be found on most microcomputers all the way up to big computers costing millions of dollars. There are C compilers for just about every type of operating system.   How Do I Get Started With C? First, you need a C compiler. There are many commercial and free ones available. The list below has instructions for downloading and installing each of the compilers. All three are completely free and include an IDE to make life easier for you to edit, compile and debug your applications. Download and Install Borlands Turbo C ExplorerDownload and Install Microsofts Visual C 2005 Express EditionDownload and Install Open Watcom C/C Compiler The instructions also show you how to enter and compile your first C application. How Do I Begin Writing C Applications? C is written using a text editor. This can be notepad or an IDE like those supplied with the three compilers listed above. You write a computer program as a series of instructions (called statements) in a notation that looks a little like mathematical formulas. This is saved out in a text file and then compiled and linked to generate machine code which you then can run. Every application you use on a computer will have been written and compiled like this, and many of them will be written in C. Read more about compilers and how they work. You cant usually get hold of the original source code unless it was open source. Is There Plenty of C Open Source? Because it is so widespread, much open source software has been written in C. Unlike commercial applications, where the source code is owned by a business and never made available, open-source code can be viewed and used by anyone. Its an excellent way to learn coding techniques.   Could I Get a Programming Job? Certainly. There are many C jobs out there and an immense body of code exists that will need updating, maintaining and occasionally rewriting. The top three most popular programming languages according to the quarterly Tiobe.com survey, are Java, C, and C. You could write your own games but youll need to be artistic or have an artist friend. Youll also need music and sound effects. Find out more about game development. Perhaps a professional 9-5 career would suit you better- read about a professional career or perhaps consider entering the world of software engineering writing software to control nuclear reactors, aircraft, space rockets or for other safety-critical areas. What Tools and Utilities Are There? Well if you cant find what you want, you could always write it. That is how most of the tools around came into existence.

The Foundations Of American Politics - 1848 Words

Forrest McMurray PSC 3723 Foundations of American Politics Professor Peters â€Å"I certify that this paper is an original paper composed by me for this course. It has not been copied or closely paraphrased from any other source or set of sources, and has not been submitted as a whole, or in part, for any credit in any other course at OU or any other educational institution by me or anyone else. I have attributed all sources by proper citations and all sources have been included in my bibliography.† If Majorities Were Angels Reason Would Rule How should we understand James Madison’s political thought? Two books, Madison’s Metronome by Greg Weiner and If Men Were Angels by Richard Matthew, offer perspectives on the â€Å"real† Madisonian†¦show more content†¦The philosophies of Madison can be arguably split up into two different segments. First, Madison is portrayed as a founding father who ties strong commitments to the individual’s liberty and property rights and how they are fundamental to his idea of republican government. The opposite view of Madison’s philosophy is that he is a fundamental believer to the principle of majority rule as the basis of republican government. As mentioned above, this essay will focus on two authors, Richard Matthews and Gregory Weiner, as they provide detailed opinions for both views of Madisonian philosophy. Before determining the best route in understanding Madison’s political ideology, it is i mportant to point out the viewpoints of the two authors. Richard Matthews argues that Madison is a â€Å"constant liberal prince† who’s committed to the individual liberty and property rights; whereas Gregory Weiner argues the latter, that Madison stands firmly in the thought that the principles of majority rule is the foundation of his version of republican government. Although these two authors disagree on the majority of principles Madison spoke on, they stand united on one Madisonian idea, the idea that Madison wanted reason to always triumph passion. Throughout Madison’s lifetime of papers, essays, letters, and personal notes, one thing has

To what extent was Roosevelt’s New Deal the reason why America was able to overcome the great depression Free Essays

Even today, almost 70 years after Roosevelt introduced his New Deal the question of whether or not it was a success is still unanswered. â€Å"This nation asks for action and action now†¦. we must act, and act quickly† 1 Roosevelt came to his position as president at a time of crisis and had promised a ‘New Deal’ for the American people which would help America rebuild herself after the great depression. We will write a custom essay sample on To what extent was Roosevelt’s New Deal the reason why America was able to overcome the great depression? or any similar topic only for you Order Now Roosevelt wanted to revive the economy and provide support for those who had been hit the hardest by the depression. He promised to end prohibition, cut unemployment by creating new jobs for people and help the industries; businesses and farms recover from the depression2 The Roaring Twenties From America the 1920’s were an era of prosperity. America had wanted isolation from the rest of the world so tariffs had been introduced on all imported goods, which would have encouraged Americans to buy US goods. American would then be able to supply itself and consequently reduce overseas competition. This demand for goods led to a period of mass production. The First World War had provided an opportunity for American companies to make large profits by selling weapons to America’s allies whose industrial production was comprised by their war economies. Also during WW1 France and Britain had relied on America to loan them money to fund the manufacture of their weapons to enable them to keep fighting the opposition in the war, these loans were still being paid off well after the war had ended. 3 The Fragility of the Boom However this affluence could not last for ever, America was over producing which meant that the market would soon become saturated. Industries had produced thousands of goods but the demand was no longer there, as those who could afford the goods already owned them so consumption began to decline. The market for goods was also reduced due to the economical divide; America had been split into two halves; on one side the wealthy and on the other poverty stricken farmers and blacks that were working, so socialists would argue, so that the rich could indulge in luxuries. Mass production contributed greatly to the downfall of the country, as it was not equally matched by mass consumption, which is a major factor in what caused the Wall Street crash of 1929. 4 â€Å"Billions of dollars’ worth of profits- and paper profits- had disappeared. The grocer, the window cleaner and the seamstress had lost their capital. In every town there were families which had suddenly dropped from showy affluence into debt†5 The end of an era Although some experts had predicted the economical crash, the majority of people believed that the USA was so wealthy and so powerful that the boom would never end. Share prices had soared and people were encouraged to go on buying on credit. Hire purchase was so easily obtainable that few people realised that it was very dangerous to go selling on credit, as eventually people would not be able to make the repayments. Due to overproduction the market was gutted, and companies were going ‘bust’. The market could be ‘played’ by anyone, from a baker to a postman; they didn’t need any experience. When it was realised that the stocks and shares were not doing as well as previous years, despite warnings from experts that they would improve, there was a massive loss in confidence and a mass panic. People became unsure of their investments and wanted to retrieve their shares. Panic stricken people were selling their stocks for a great deal less than what they were actually worth, prices plummeted and on October 24th 1929prices crashed. Over 13 million shares were sold and a further 500,000 on 29th October. Shares dramatically lost value, ‘Electric bond and Share’ shares had fallen from $186 to $50 in just 2 months6; many had lost all that they had invested. 7 â€Å"The stock market was shaken to its foundations yesterday by the severest break in the history of Wall Street. The immediate cause of the debacle, which was entirely unexpected, was the forced liquidation of large brokerage accounts and furious bear attacks that chopped from $5,000,000,000 to $7,000,000 in values from shares. Trading on the floor of the Stock Exchange was virtually paralyzed†¦ For many people, the shock of the Wall Street crash was too much for them to take and some even committed suicide as they believed they had lost everything and would not be able to rebuild their life. The wealth and prosperity that America had gained during the ‘roaring’ twenties had not been shared equally between the American citizens, which had caused a lot of inequality, and resentment from the lower classes. As a result of this America plunged into depression, people began to realise that the economic problems would not go away unless they did something about it. Wages fell and soon people did not have enough money to feed and clothe themselves and their family, the American population was no longer self-sufficient. â€Å"I have two boys to go to work. They haven’t got any shoes, no clothes. They can’t go to look for a job because they haven’t any shoes†9 Lower annual incomes had forced wives and older children who had not previously had to work, look for jobs. 10 Banks collapsed because people withdrew all their money from banks and kept it at home. People had lost confidence in the financial system and instead of investing and spending people now began to save. 1 Roosevelt’s New Deal After the Wall Street Crash, the American people were looking for someone to pull them out of depression and so when Roosevelt offered them his New Deal they weren’t reluctant to oppose him, they saw him as their ‘saviour’12 Roosevelt promised the American public rapid action â€Å"The country needs, and unless I mistake its mood, demands bold experiments. Above all, try something†13 He knew that he had no time to waste and that the only way to relieve America from depression was to act quickly. He guaranteed that his ‘New Deal’ would revive the economy and improve the standard of living in America. 14 An important factor we have to consider when discussing the success of the New Deal is that Roosevelt was and still is an extremely popular American figure so much of the evidence that is available for us to study is biased towards him. Due to this we have to make sure we consider the reliability and consistency of the sources we are studying. Roosevelt built up an incredibly respectable and honest image of himself so most of the sources, which are available to us, are biased towards him. One of the sources that I have studied15 described the success of the TVA, however the director of the TVA wrote this source so is obviously going to be biased towards the new deal. Even though it contains facts and figures there is no way of telling if they are true. Roosevelt had the power to censor all kinds of media and also use the radio, television and newspapers as propaganda. However there was some opposition to Roosevelt although there are no sources to support their views; large businesses were not fond of Roosevelt or the New Deal as they saw it as the government interfering in things that were not their concern. Also the wealthier members of society believed that because Roosevelt was a rich man they expected him to help them but instead he raised taxes on the well off and ignored their desires. 16 The start of WW2 would have had a dramatic effect on the economy of America although people tend to forget this and suggest that the recovery of America’s financial system was initiated solely by Roosevelt’s New Deal. Reforming the financial system Roosevelt decided that his New Deal would consist of different schemes and programs, and laws (known as the alphabet laws), which would bring about economic recovery. Before Roosevelt could pass any new laws the banking emergency needed to be sorted out. On March 6th 1933 the Emergency Banking Act and Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was enforced and all banks were shut down. This gave the government the opportunity to inspect the health of all banks and almost two thirds were re-opened soon after, as they were declared acceptable. The FDIC was formed by the congress to insure deposits up to $5000 and people began to put their money back into the banks and confidence gradually returned. Faith had been re-established in American banks and people were no longer scared that they would lose all of their savings in a bank failure. After the Wall Street Crash all confidence in the banks had been lost but by introducing the FDIC and the Emergency banking Act Roosevelt was able to restore this trust. â€Å"Confidence and courage are the essentials in our plan. You must have faith; you must not be stampeded by rumours. We have provided the machinery to restore our financial system; it is up to you to support and make it work. Together we cannot fail†17. The Federal Securities Act of May 1933 and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) were set up to regulate the stock market and required full disclosure of information on stocks being sold. The Congress also gave the Federal Reserve board the power to regulate the purchase of stock. Modernization of American Agriculture The Agriculture Adjustment Administration (AAA) was introduced to try and raise farm prices and used proceeds from a new tax to pay farmers not to raise specific crops and animals, lower production would in turn increase prices. In May 1933 the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) was established to help farmers and to create jobs in one of America’s least modernized areas. A hydroelectric power plant was reactivated and provided cheap electric power, flood control and recreational opportunities to the entire Tennessee River Valley. 18 The TVA involved ordinary people in the planning so that they would be taking part in making decisions, which affected their own future. â€Å"In ten years the dams TVA has built have made this region the second largest producer of power in the United States. In 1944 the system will produce nearly half as much electricity as the utilities of the entire country produced in 1914. â€Å"19 Between 1935 and 1943 the Works Progress Administration (WPA) was set up and provided work for 8 million Americans, it decreased the rate of unemployment and the workers constructed or repaired schools, hospitals and airfields. 20 The Farm Security Administration (FSA) loaned more than $1 billion to farmers and set up camps for migrant workers. The FSA aimed to assist sharecroppers, tenant farmers and migrant labourers. One success of the FSA was that it brought the problem of poverty to national attention. Supporting the people of America The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was led by Harry Hopkins who believed that men should be put to work and not be given charity. This agency sent funds to depleting local relief agencies and also funded public work programs, within two hours $5million were given out and deteriorating relief programs were revitalized. The Civil Works Administration (CWA) gave the unemployed jobs building or repairing roads, parks, airports and other public places. This not only provided a physical boost to its 4million workers but also a psychological one. 21 Roosevelt had succeeded in creating more jobs, which helped reduce the number of unemployed, to 7. 7 million by 1937 from 12. 83 million just 4 years before. 22 The CWA and FERA also helped repair many public places, which was a beneficial, step in rebuilding America. The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of June 1933 was formed to boost declining prices and to help businesses and workers. NIRA allowed trade associations in many industries to write codes regulating wages, working conditions, production and prices. If all employers in each competitive group agree-to pay their workers the same wages-reasonable wages-and require the same hours-reasonable hours-then higher wages and shorter hours will hurt no employer. Moreover, such action is better for the employer than unemployment and low wages, because it makes more buyers for his product. That is the simple idea which is the very heart of NIRA†23 The Public Works Association (PWA) was a part of the NIRA and often regarded as one of the best parts launched projects such as the Grand Coulee Dam on the Columbia River and gave the unemployed jobs helping enforce these new programs. Roosevelt placed a lot of efforts into reducing the rate of unemployment, which is why so many of his proposals were focused around creating new jobs. The Civilian conservation Corps (CCC) was an environmental program, which positioned 2. 5million unmarried men in work, maintaining and restoring forests, beaches and parks. The workers only received $1 a day but they also got free board and job training. During 1934 and 1937 the CCC funded similar programs for over 8,500 women. These programs taught men and women to live independently and significantly increased their self-esteem. We have here one of the best [CCC] camps that could possibly be established. The country and the hills here make you think there is no such thing as a city†¦. It sure beats ‘Brother can you spare me a dime’. â€Å"24 The great depression had left many people homeless, which was why the Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) was set up. It helped people keep their houses by refinancing the mor tgages of middle- income homeowners and also tried to help those without a home find suitable accommodation. During the depression many people families had been forced out of their homes because they could no longer afford to keep their houses, the HOLC can be considered as a success as the number of homeless people did decrease and the problem had been largely overcome. In 1935 the National Labour Relations Act (Wagner Act) was launched to legalise practices allowed only unevenly in the past, such as closed shops in which only union members could work. It authorized workers to form trade unions and the act also set up the National Labour Relations Board (NLRB) to enforce its provisions. The Fair Labour Standards act of 1938 was a long awaited triumph for the socialists who wanted to reform American society. The act enforces a set minimum wage and a maximum number of hours that people are allowed to work and also banned child labour. The depression had caused a lack of confidence among the people and the Social Security Act of 1935 helped millions of Americans feel more secure. It established a system that provided pensions for workers, benefits for survivors of industrial accidents, unemployment insurance and aid for mothers, children, the blind and the physically disabled. The Black community had always been severely discriminated against so Roosevelt displayed genuine sympathy for Black aspiration so to gain support from the minority groups. The National association for the advancement of coloured people (NAACP) brought an impressive number of churches, academics, labour unions and other liberal groups into the anti lynching mob. 26 In 1934 the Indian Reorganization Act was passed which ended the sale of tribal lands. This act restored ownership of unallocated lands to Native American Groups, which caused a very positive outcome for Native Americans. Benefits of the New Deal Roosevelt’s New deal was considered a great success by the people of America, he had managed to convince them that it would be able to overcome the great depression and his confidence reflected upon them and everyone had great faith in his New Deal. â€Å"Nothing can stop the President’s program, nothing will even hamper the presidents program†¦ the power of this people, once aroused and united in a fixed purpose, is the most irresistible force in the world†27 On the surface it appeared that the New Deal had been a victory. It gained such dedicated support from the American public that their confidence had been fully restored. A noticeable achievement of the New Deal was the Fair Labour Standards Act, which had established a minimum wage and a maximum hours policy. President Roosevelt had carefully planned his New Deal in such a way that the problems of the depression would be overcome as soon as possible and restore America’s financial status. All of the schemes in Roosevelt’s New Deal were aimed to bring relief to as many people as it could and to bring the support quickly. One of the main reason’s why the New Deal did achieve some significant changes was that the American public was convinced that it would work and trusted Roosevelt and believed he would be able to rebuild the economy. When the Banks reopened after the Emergency banking act, many people began to reinvest their money in the reopened banks, which showed that they had confidence that there would not be another economical collapse. Opposition to the New Deal However, the New Deal was not entirely a success; it faced a lot of opposition primarily from the rich and the republicans. The republicans opposed the increase in presidential power and believed it was leading to dictatorship and critised Roosevelt for high government spending. The Supreme Court was constantly suggesting that the laws which were included in the New Deal were unconstitutional. Full employment and dramatic reductions in poverty were not achieved until 1942-43, when 13,000,000 men and women were serving in the armed forces and the United States were supplying huge amounts of war materials and food to America’s allies, which meant that America’s economic power was being restored. 28 The New Deal failed to promote real economic recovery and it had taken massive government borrowing, investment and spending to end the depression. Despite Roosevelt’s numerous attempts to restore America’s economy with the NRA and the AAA the New Deal never completely succeeded in overcoming the economical problems caused by the depression. The National Industrial Recovery Act stopped the tailspin of prices for a short while although as wages rose so did prices and consumers began to buy fewer goods. The Continuous cycle of overproduction and under consumption put business back into a slump. Some businesses felt that the codes enforced by the NIRA were too complicated and difficult to understand and believed the act was too rigid. The Agriculture Adjustment Administration was quite a controversial program as farmers were told to kill off certain animals and destroy crops; many people could not believe that the government was condoning such horrific action when there were American people who were starving. Although the Tennessee Valley Authority had been successful in creating new jobs for hundreds of people the results were not as dramatic as the government had claimed. Only 3 out of every 100 farms had electricity and the levels of Malaria and vitamin deficiency had increased and at a dangerous level. The average wage of a farmer was 40% of the national wage and many farmers were in a great amount of debt. The TVA had been very much involved with the richer farmers who didn’t really did its help and had ignored the needs of the poorer, less fortunate farmers, â€Å"The land-grant colleges were closely tied to the interests of the richer farmers. They had little or nothing to do with the poor, mainly black tenant farmers. The services offered by the TVA-advice on new farming developments, fertilisers and marketing- were monopolised by the richer, white farmers. â€Å"29 Most of the programs and schemes which were put forward by Roosevelt had limited funds and only made slight differences to the state of America. The New Deal did not extend to all deprived Americans and excluded the minority groups. There was never a Civil Rights program, which caused massive Black demonstrations and pressurized the government to establish fair employment practises although it refused to end discrimination in the armed forces. The New Deal was an extremely difficult period of time for black families, by 1933 half of black workers were without a job and those who did have jobs were discriminated against as the National Recovery Administration had made it legal to pay white people more than the blacks. 30 Republican opponents of Roosevelt criticised the Social Security Act, as they believed that it was destroying the traditional culture of America. Many thought that the government did not have the right to intervene with people’s lives by making them pay taxes for Social Security. However contradicting to this some liberals felt that the payments should have been bigger to provide more social security to the American people. The New Deal had given assistance to those on the border of poverty like the blue collar workers and commercial farmers but had offered much less to those who were in permanent poverty. The New Deal did not succeed in lifting the nation entirely out of depression and in 1939 there were still 10 million people unemployed. 31 â€Å"Although much of the advances that were made came as a result of government spending†¦ he nation had barely reached the 1929 level of production a decade later, and there were still nearly ten million men and women unemployed. â€Å"32 Was the New Deal a success? The New Deal undoubtedly brought changes to the economy of America although there were most probably other factors, which contributed to the restoration of the American financial system. The economy of America had always previously, and still today been very unsteady, the national income is forever changing and sometimes falls and often rises. There is no proof, and we will never know whether the wealth of America would have restored itself without the help of Roosevelt’s New Deal. Also the start of the Second World War would have brought a remarkable change to the nation’s revenue. The country would have concentrated on producing military goods for their allies, which would have provided more jobs and in turn would have slowly revived America’s financial system. â€Å"During Franklin Roosevelt’s first term, the New Deal did not cure the underlying economic problems. It was the war that did that. Within a matter of months, six million workers found new jobs†33 By 1943 unemployment had been reduced to just 1. 07 million from almost 13 million at the height of the depression. 34 Without the New Deal, however, the country would still have been in a state of recession, and might have been unable to help with the war effort at all. Generally, Roosevelt’s New deal had been a success; it had brought to America a great change, which contributed greatly to the restoration of the country. Child labour was prohibited and a national wage and maximum hours legislation was established. By the time that the New Deal had ended organised labour had more imperative and influential position in American society than it had ever had before. The New Deal had to a great extent reduced the reputation and power of big businesses and put a significant number of measures to stabilise America’s economy. It had re-established the public’s assurance in society introduced new laws and schemes to help prevent a new depression. In conclusion, the extent of which Roosevelt’s New Deal was a success will forever remain unknown. President Roosevelt was a great inspiration to the American people in the 1930’s and still today is remembered as one of America’s greatest and most influential presidents. Although many may critise the New Deal and the way that Roosevelt dealt with the problems of the depression, there is no way of telling whether or not America would be the super power it is in the present day if Roosevelt hadn’t have proposed his schemes and policies which were contained in his New Deal. How to cite To what extent was Roosevelt’s New Deal the reason why America was able to overcome the great depression?, Papers

Too Much Pressure Not for Me. free essay sample

I was sweating even though it was cold. I was tense even though I was on vacation. My school work was done, so that wasn’t the problem. I was in the midst of filling my first order for Keepa Kouture, a fashion yarmulke company I co-founded with a friend, and everything seemed to be going wrong. The day had started on a much more positive note. I had been awakened by my adorable sister, who handed me a UPS package. The samples of the trendy yarmulkes I design and sell had arrived. I was overwhelmed with joy until I realized that the samples that had arrived, which were made of beautiful fabric and design, lacked the perfect workmanship that I expected. I called my partner, who was supposed to be in town to join me in presenting the samples, but he had decided to spend the day with his girlfriend. We will write a custom essay sample on Too Much Pressure? Not for Me. or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the middle of that conversation I got another call from the executive editor of Modern Jeweler Magazine, where I had done a summer internship. He wanted some pictures for one of the articles I had written about a pearl company owned by my friend’s mother who was having some business challenges. I also had to make final arrangements for my visit to Boston University the next day. Too much pressure? Not for me. I shook off the cold and tension and spent the rest of the day making phone calls and sending emails, getting the details right for all of my various projects. My visit to Boston University was exhilarating and ended with a visit to the Hillel House, where an amazing business idea hit me: I would make college specific, fashionable yarmulkes to be sold to Jewish students who want to display their fashion sense and school pride. I got the jewelry pictures from my photographer to the editor, just beating the deadline. I wish I could report that I had the same amount of s uccess with my business order. Instead I opted to wait and perfect the product. Although I failed in this endeavor in the short run, I was not daunted I know that with every failure come knowledge and experience, and I would never let a bump on the road stop me. After I talked to the manufacturer and explained the deficiencies in the samples, we set up a new launch date. I now have two large orders for the merchandise that I know will please the customers. But that doesnt mean something else wont go wrong.

Paradise or Hell Conflicting Images of the Post

The peculiarities of the post-colonial world have been discussed in many historians, sociologists, and political scientists. However, they can also be examined by looking at literary works that describe the experiences of colonizers and those who were colonized.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Paradise or Hell? Conflicting Images of the Post-Colonial World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper will focus on the novel Things Fall Apart written by Chinua Achebe and Margaret Atwood’s poem Progressive Insanities of a Pioneer. These works show how colonial forces can impact community and how people can perceive the world that is new and probably hostile to them. Although these novels differ significantly in terms of genre and themes, they can both show us that post-colonial world combines the images of both paradise and hell. Overall, these authors show that these communities could have become a much bett er place to live if settlers and native people tried to understand the values and ideas of one another. This problem is still relevant to contemporary societies that try to overcome the legacies of colonialism. In the opening chapters of his novel, Chinua Achebe portrays a village that is not affected by Western culture and civilization. The action begins just before the arrival of European missionaries. For instance, this is how the author describe the nature, â€Å"he loved this season of the year, when the rains stopped and the sun rose every morning with dazzling beauty. And it was not hot either because the cold and dry harmattan wind was blowing down from the north† (Achebe 2).Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Such a description can imply that it is an idyllic community that is not affected by any external forces. It may be an exaggeration to call it paradise, but such associations can arise. It reminds readers of such things as peace and freedom. However, at the same time, they can see that violence is imbedded into the culture of this community. For example, one can mention Ikemefuna, a boy, who was taken as a hostage and subsequently killed by Okonkwo for the alleged crime of his father. This boy became attached to Okonkwo, but the laws of this tribe obliged Okonkwo to kill this boy. To some degree, this hostility between the two villages mirrors contemporary ethnic conflict in Nigeria. As it has been noted by Rotimi Suberu, Nigerian population is comprised of many ethnic groups that may differ in terms of religion, language or income level (12). This is one of the reasons why ethnic conflicts occur in Nigeria. The main tragedy is that in many cases, innocent people such as Ikemefuna suffer from these hostilities. These examples show that Chinua Achebe gives a conflicting portrayal of the community in which his characters live, and it does combines the elements of paradise and hell. Furthermore, the problems that the author refers to in his novel may manifest themselves in contemporary Nigeria. In turn, Margaret Atwood focuses on the experiences of British colonizers in Canada. At first glance, it seems that the opening lines of her poem describe the sensation of freedom, happiness, and serenity.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Paradise or Hell? Conflicting Images of the Post-Colonial World specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is how the author describes the feelings of this individual, â€Å"He stood, a point on a sheet of green paper proclaiming himself the centre with no wall, no borders†. (Atwood, 60) Yet, the readers can also notice that this person is by no means happy. The first thing that he says is â€Å"let me out† (Atwood, 60). Such an outcry is hardly compatible with the idea of paradise. One can see that the coloni zer desperately tried to protect the fruits of his labor and feared virtually everything. In fact, he believed that even nature was hostile to him.Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Furthermore, Atwood intentionally uses the personal pronoun â€Å"he† in order to emphasize the idea that Canadian colonizers built a patriarchal society in which women were denied access to any positions of power. Apart from that, one can notice that native people are not present in this poem, and their voices are silenced. Overall, Margaret Atwood describes the complex and rather conflicting experiences of British settlers in Canada. These people were trying to establish a new society that could become a better place to live. However, at the same time, they felt rather insecure in these lands. Thus, to some degree, this poem may describe a promised land, but it is full of fear and anxiety. This is the main paradox of colonial experiences. These literary works have other details that refer to the images of paradise and hell. In his novel, Chinua Achebe describes people who adopt a very respectful attitude toward nature and animals. Igbo people tended to describe and explain various natural phenomena with the help of animal stories. Moreover, some of the animals were even revered such as the royal python (Achebe 138). It was inconceivable for Okonkwo that Europeans missionaries could dismiss this tradition. To a great extent, this cultural practice can conjure up such an image as the Garden of Eden in which people did not separate themselves from other animals and lived in harmony with one another. The main tragedy is that they did not show similar respect to the dignity and life of other people. Again, one can mention the innocent boy Ikemefuna who was killed only because he was a member of a different tribe. Thus, it is clear that this tribal society had many flaws even before the arrival of European settlers. However, colonization made the situation worse because it completely dehumanized local people. Chinua Achebe shows that Europeans did not attach much importance to this tradition, beliefs, and value system of the local people. In their opinion, such beliefs were typical of the so-called uncivilized nations. The problem is that the world described by the author is full of hostility and violence that are aimed against the outsiders. Everything that did not reach their standards of conventionality was rejected. Both Africans and European settlers did not even try to understand the values of one another. Certainly, one cannot argue that the culture of Igbo people was perfect, but it could not be dismissed entirely as it was done by European missionaries. This is one of the reasons why post-colonial world is still ridden with conflict. Margaret Atwood’s poem gives readers a different insight into this problem. The thing is that she does not even mention those people who lived in Canada before the arrival of British settlers. A person, whom she describes, believes that he is the centre of the world. It does not occur to him that there could be other people living in this land. It should be noted that this person lives in an environment that was utterly new to him. For instance, Mary Atwood writes, â€Å"Things refused to name themselves; refused to let him name them† (60). On the whole, this quote suggests that colonizers did not even try to talk to local people in order to learn more about this place. Settlers could believe that local were either too primitive or hostile to them. Thus, one can say that the newly created community was very segregated. More importantly, native people were practically excluded from this community, and their presence was disregarded. The problem is that nowadays Native Canadians are underrepresented in public life. So, despite the fact that Margaret Atwood focuses mostly on the life of colonial society, her poem points to the challenges faced by the post-colonial society. These authors also show how damaging the impact of colonialism can be. Okonkwo, the main character of Achebe’s novel resists changes that are brought by European settlers. He believes th at new customs, traditions, especially religion will deprive him of his social status and respect of other people. This is why he commits suicide when Igbo people refuse to support him in his struggle against European missionaries. The person described by Margaret Atwood feels extremely insecure and alienated. His attempts to create an orderly life eventually lead to insanity. Thus, one can say that in both cases, colonialism produced damaging effects on individuals. The legacies of these experiences are palpable nowadays. Certainly, colonial and post-colonial societies could not become an earthly paradise; however, many of their internal flaws could have been eliminated if Europeans and local people tried to accept the humanity and dignity of one another. Unfortunately, this was not done. Surely, one cannot say that post-colonial countries resemble hell, but conflict, injustice and inequality are almost inseparable from them. In part, these social problems are the legacies of colon ialism. Overall, these literary works can be related to the field of post-colonial studies and some of its theories. One of them was developed by Edward Said in his book Orientalism. In particular, this author argues that Western scholars, especially historians often overlook the experiences of those people who were colonized (Said 125). In his opinion, very little attention is paid to their values and perceptions. In fact, they were considered to be primitive and irrational. The popularity of Chinua Achebe’ novel can be partly explained by the fact that he was one of the first authors who gave voice African people. This novel enabled readers throughout the world to see how Igbo people viewed their colonial experiences and how they responded to them. Edward Said also believes that Western colonizers immediately labeled non-western communities as backward, wild and unenlightened (Said 12). As it has been noted before, the folklore of Igbo people included a great number of anim al stories and colonizers perceived it as a sign of backwardness. Additionally, European settlers could not accept the idea that other nations could have different political structures. For example, they believed that tribal communities were essentially primitive. People can long debate whether this argument is right or wrong; yet, the main issue is that Europeans immediately tried to impose their political structures on native people and in this way they disrupted local communities. Apart from that, according to Edward Said Westerners could not accept the way of thinking and lifestyles of the local people (Said 125). For instance, they could not understand people who attached very little attention to property rights and land ownership. In part, this idea is reflected in Margaret Atwood’s poem. British settlers could not imagine the world with â€Å"no walls† or â€Å"no borders† (Atwood 60). The life of aboriginal people was not acceptable for them. More import antly, they became convinced that these communities were primitive or at least underdeveloped. Later, these beliefs were advanced with the help of propaganda. Thus, these two works should the perceptions of aboriginal people and colonizers. Admittedly, these experiences differed immensely, but the main issue is that they did not even try to communicate with one another. The main problem is that such misunderstanding is typical not only of colonial world, but also of the post-colonial societies. The communities that are influenced by the legacies of colonialism still struggle to reconcile the interests and views of Western-European settlers and native people. Such works as Things Fall Apart and Progressive Insanities of a Pioneer can help both sides better understand this conflict. This discussion suggests that the world described by Chinua Achebe and Margaret Atwood may seem serene and peaceful at first glance. However, by taking a closer look at this world, one can see that it is f ull of hostilities, violence, and insecurity. The authors describe different cultures and countries, but in each case, people are alienated from one another. More importantly, they realize that their conventional lifestyle is threatened. Maybe, it is an exaggeration to call these experiences hell, but they have a very adverse influence on them. Okonkwo commits suicide because he is no longer a leader of the community, while the unknown settler described by Margaret Atwood is driven into insanity. The main problem is that native people and colonizers did not make any effort to understand one another. Unfortunately, this problem often manifests itself in the modern, post-colonial world. Works Cited Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart, New York: Anchor, 1994. Print. Atwood, Margaret. Selected Poems, 1965-1975, Berkeley: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1987. Print. Said, Edward. Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Print. Suberu, Rotimi. Federalism and Ethnic Conflict in Nigeria, New Yo rk: US Institute of Peace Press, 2001. Print. This essay on Paradise or Hell? Conflicting Images of the Post-Colonial World was written and submitted by user DamageC0ntr0l to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Ethics of Means and Ends essayEssay Writing Service

Ethics of Means and Ends essayEssay Writing Service Ethics of Means and Ends essay Ethics of Means and Ends essayThe ethical approach concerning means and ends that I expect to apply in my role as a criminal justice professional can be explained in the following way:The ethical approach concerning means and ends is the so-called ethical doctrine of the ends justifying the means. In the criminal justice system, the morality of means and ends refers to the moral use of power in different situations. The major goal of the criminal justice system is to prevent people from committing crimes by threatening them with different kinds of punishment. A criminal justice professional should be focused on providing social control and preventing crimes. In some cases, it is acceptable for a criminal justice professional to use bad means in order to attain good ends. As a matter of fact, in the American criminal justice system, the ends of justice fail to justify the means of achieving it. For example, it is not allowed to use violence in the form of torture toward suspects.As a criminal justice professional, I will effectively use ethical approach concerning means and ends in my future practice. I realize that I should not violate the laws of criminal procedure. The ethical approach will help me to be engaged in moral behavior, overcoming any obstacles put by the criminal justice system. I realize that I should deal with a conflict that exists between the means and ends of justice. As a representative of the criminal justice, I am obliged to the means of justice embodied in the legal process. At the same time, I am obliged to the ends of justice, providing social security. I should be focused on the noble cause in my actions and decisions, doing good for all the members of society I live in. I will have to weigh the legality of my actions, decisions and behaviors against the so-called good end of arresting a criminal.

Plagiarism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

Plagiarism - Essay Example The proper source is needed here for a case if our paraphrasing is not ideal and the sentence or a part of it can be revealed in other sources. Thus, it is necessary to cite this particular source after the paragraph or sentence we take from the writing of others in order not to be accused in plagiarism (Lynch, 2002). The next way is to avoid plagiarism is to use direct quotes. Here we are to use quotation marks â€Å"Socrates is one of best philosophers† (Source + page number). When we use a direct quote that is a copy-pasted material we must use quotation marks and indicate a page number of the source we took this sentence from. The sources must be correct, because if we state that we took this sentence from other source, it will be considered as plagiarism, notwithstanding that it is in quotation marks. If these rules are followed, the accusation of plagiarism may be avoided. Lynch, Jack (2002) The Perfectly Acceptable Practice of Literary Theft: Plagiarism, Copyright, and the Eighteenth Century, in Colonial Williamsburg: The Journal of the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation 24, no. 4 (Winter

Patient undergoing surgery Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8000 words

Patient undergoing surgery - Dissertation Example ies from Turkey (Sahin, et.al., 2010, Egri, et.al., 2008), four from the UK (Ashraff, et.al., 2006; Kay and Siriwardena; Yeoman, et.al., 2006; Akkad, et.al., 2006, Habiba, et.al., 2004, Vohra, et.al., 2003; Mauffrey, et.al., 2008), three from Saudi (Khedhiri, et.al., 2013, Abalfotouh, and Adlan, 2012; Amir, et.al., 2012; Al-Faleh, et.al., 2010), one from Israel (Brezis, et.al., 2008); one from Switzerland (Ghulam et.al., 2006); one from the Czech Republic (Kopacova and Bures, 2012) and one from Canada (Falagas, et.al., 2006). Majority of the focus of these studies relates to how informed consent is perceived by patients, whether they consider it satisfactory or not. It also relates mostly to the quality of informed consent for the patients, including the relay of sufficient information to the patients. Majority of the methods applied for this review is the quantitative study, with only one qualitative study meeting the inclusion criteria. In terms of methodological quality, the cross -sectional studies (Egri, et.al., 2008; Brezis, et.al., 2008; Amir, et.al., 2009; Abalfotouh and Adlan, 2012; Falagas, et.al., 2009; Ghulam, et.al., 2006; Khedhiri, et.al., 2013) p rovided a sufficient insight and trend for a larger population as opposed to other studies, especially qualitative studies (Habiba, et.al., 2004) which can only provide an insight for a smaller sub-set of a population. In this case, the larger group of patients going through different types of surgery are represented in these cross-sectional studies. The cross-sectional studies also allowed for the establishment of a link between informed consent and outcomes and perceptions of patient surgery (Egri, et.al., 2008; Brezis, et.al., 2008; Amir, et.al., 2009; Abalfotouh and Adlan, 2012; Falagas, et.al., 2009; Ghulam,... In terms of methodological quality, the cross-sectional studies (Egri, et.al., 2008; Brezis, et.al., 2008; Amir, et.al., 2009; Abalfotouh and Adlan, 2012; Falagas, et.al., 2009; Ghulam, et.al., 2006; Khedhiri, et.al., 2013) p rovided a sufficient insight and trend for a larger population as opposed to other studies, especially qualitative studies (Habiba, et.al., 2004) which can only provide an insight for a smaller sub-set of a population.   In this case, the larger group of patients going through different types of surgery are represented in these cross-sectional studies.   The cross-sectional studies also allowed for the establishment of a link between informed consent and outcomes and perceptions of patient surgery (Egri, et.al., 2008; Brezis, et.al., 2008; Amir, et.al., 2009; Abalfotouh and Adlan, 2012; Falagas, et.al., 2009; Ghulam, et.al., 2006; Khedhiri, et.al., 2013).   The sample of individuals from the larger population was polled and given questionnaires of intervie ws in terms of the quality of informed consent they had from their healthcare givers.   Their perception of the informed consent was also gathered through the cross-sectional studies included in this review.   Limitations in cross-sectional studies may however be observed in terms of the direction of the relationship where the quality of the informed consent may contribute to anxiety during surgery or the other way around (Abalfotouh and Adlan, 2012, Khedhiri, et.al., 2013; Ghulam, et.al., 2006).   In the prospective studies carried out (Sahin, et.al.)

Employment Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Employment Law - Essay Example In the first category of immediate termination, there are various conditions under which an employee may be dismissed with the first one being if the employee is found guilty of going against the rules and regulations set for operations in the work environment (Batson and Shirouzo, 2010). The second rule stipulates that if an employee is found guilty of a crime they can be dismissed without notice. The third law states that in an event where the employee does something that causes damage to the employer, they can be dismissed since this infringes on the employer’s interests (EuroChinaJob, 2009). With this in mind, it follows that if an employee has a relationship with another employer, which affects the way the employee accomplishes tasks they can dismissed on grounds of not adhering to the regulations of the employer because they fail to accomplish tasks assigned to them. The fifth law that may cause dismissal of an employee without notice is if the employee acquired the job through fraudulent means, which amounts to cheating in order to be employed. In addition to the above, an employee is subjected to dismissal without notice if they are found not to be competent in regards to the job description to which they were employed on. I contrast to the employment law in China, the one in the in the United Kingdom stipulates that employment could be terminated by either the parties to the contract at will with or without notice. The employee is also subject to dismissal if the contract signed expires and it has not been renewed. The employee can also decide to terminate employment on grounds of constructive dismissal whereby there are circumstances that are reasonable basing this on the employer’s behavior. In addition to this if termination comes about because of the workers performance there are guidelines to be followed in order to ensure that the dismissal is in

Benefits of Buying a House

Benefits of Buying a House Buying a house is one of the smartest financial decisions a person can make. People have been reluctant to invest in a house for many reasons. Among the reasons are decreasing home values, high student debt, the volatile job market, and other reasons. This reluctance has caused a drop in homeownership, especially by the millennial generation. Many people rent because it is easier and seems cheaper. But, when considering likely resale value, and emotional benefits, the benefits of investing in a house are apparent. When renting a house or apartment from a landlord, the renter pays the landlord a monthly fee at the beginning of the month. When purchasing a house, the purchaser borrows money from the bank to pay for the house. The purchaser must pays back a monthly amount equal to a portion of the borrowed money plus interest associated with the borrowed money. Many people compare the price difference between rent and mortgage payments, and seeing that the monthly rent amount is less, decide to rent. Generally, rent payments are initially cheaper which is attractive. But, if you compare the total long-term financial differences between renting and paying a mortgage, youll likely see the opposite. Rent payments go to your landlord as pocket money. Mortgage payments are an investment to a likely appreciating asset. As a purchaser pays off a mortgage, the purchasers home equity increases. In other words, the purchaser is building his or her retirement account and not a landlords. When comparing rent payments versus mortgage payments, there are a number of variables to consider, including the characteristics of the properties, their location, their condition, and the potential of the properties to appreciate in value. Below is a table showing the average comparison between rent monthly payments and mortgage monthly payments, taking inflation into consideration. As you can see on the table, we are comparing the mortgage of a home that costs $160,000 to renting that home for $800 per month. Rent is cheaper throughout the first five years, which is what causes many people to decide to rent. But, due to inflation, rent becomes more expensive than mortgage would cost after those initial five years. Rent payments and mortgage payments for similar properties are only marginally different. The long-term aspects between the two, however, are significant. A renter is not encumbered with the longer-term responsibilities that accompany home ownership such as maintenance, upkeep, and the potential of having to sell the house before having the ability to relocate. On the other hand, while paying a mortgage, a purchaser is building equity in an asset. While paying rent, a renter is paying a fee to a landlord without any long-term financial benefit. Buying is a financially superior decision. Buying a house is an investment, meaning it is possible that an investor can lose money or make money depending on whether the asset depreciates or appreciates in value. A renter does not have the investment risk associated with owning a house. In the case of real estate, though, it is more likely that an investor will make money. For example, properties sold in cities like New York, DC, and Miami are good investments because those areas tend to attract professional people who plan to stay for a long period of time. Buying in an area like these, where the market is trending up increases net worth. In 2000, a house that cost $300,000 could sell for $500,000 in 2017, which means an investor who bought a house in 2000 and sold it in 2017 made $200,000 from the investment. The likely potential to realize appreciation on the investment in a house is a big benefit to the purchaser. People who invest in buying a house often benefit from more than just financial benefits. When buying a house, the purchaser can redesign and make alterations to the home. In other words, the purchaser can personalize their home in ways that a renter cannot. This gives a homeowner a sense of control that a renter doesnt have over their home. It results in homeowners having a higher satisfaction with life, a more positive mindset, and a home that suites the needs of the entire family that can be modified as needed. There is a sense of pride that comes along with buying a home. Most people who purchase a house plan to stay for a while. So when an investor buys a home, they are also investing in the local community. They are not simply buying a piece of real estate. They are buying a home in a neighborhood, surrounded by people who are all working together for the greater good to make it a fantastic place to settle down and call home. People who rent a house rather than buy a house are not likely to create these interpersonal relationships in the community to the same degree. The renter knows they may have to move when their lease is up and so may not be as invested in the community activities. These relationships create a reliable support system, which is emotionally healthier. Although renting and buying each have pros and cons, buying is a better long term investment. In most places, mortgage and rent payments are only marginally different. Paying a mortgage for a house and building equity in the house has long-term benefits, both financial and emotional, that renting does not provide. Although renters are not encumbered with many of the responsibilities of home ownership, investing in a home is a great long term investment. A purchaser has the potential upside of asset appreciation and emotional attachment. Assuming a purchaser can handle the responsibilities of home ownership, the long-term benefits of home ownership make purchasing a home a great investment.

Essay --

Segregation, the separation of individuals by their race, was something that many African American experienced in their life after their freedom from slavery until the end of segregation around the mid-1900s. Southerners were less accepting of African Americans than their Northern counterparts. Southerners were often extremely cruel to African Americans, referring to them with demeaning names and physically hurting them, sometimes to the point of critical injury or death. During this time, James Meredith, a civil rights leader was born. James Howard Meredith was born as one of ten children on a farm in Kosciusko, Mississippi on June 25, 1933. He was not exposed to racism until a train ride from Chicago, where he had to give up his seat for a white man. This train ride was his catalyst for fighting for civil rights. He spent nine years in the Army Air Force following high school. After his service, he enrolled in the all-black school, Jackson State College in Mississippi. The beginning of his work started in the year 1961, when he applied for University of Mississippi, which back then was an all-white school that had been segregated and should have been integrated with the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. The Brown v. the Board of Education, taking place in 1952, was a case that overruled the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that legalized segregation. This case brought about after an African American man from Topeka filed a lawsuit saying that black and white schools were not legal. This parent was Oliver Brown. This case was taken care of by Thurgood Marshall and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The court ruled in favor of Brown and segregation became considered illegal and in violation of ... ...aces, however, when they look at the same classroom about sixty years ago they will find it less diversified. Now, people can see African American children play with the children of white people. There are children who are of mixed race, when back then these children would be shunned by both sides. The children are able to play, become friends, and be happy. They are able to have a life where they do not have to worry about getting off the street just because a white person is passing by. They do not have to worry about moving to the back just because a white person has arrived. This would not have been the case sixty years ago. This place where children of all races are able to enjoy each other’s company was the result of many years of effort and blood, not only by one person but by many courageous individuals who wanted to create a better future for their people. Essay -- Segregation, the separation of individuals by their race, was something that many African American experienced in their life after their freedom from slavery until the end of segregation around the mid-1900s. Southerners were less accepting of African Americans than their Northern counterparts. Southerners were often extremely cruel to African Americans, referring to them with demeaning names and physically hurting them, sometimes to the point of critical injury or death. During this time, James Meredith, a civil rights leader was born. James Howard Meredith was born as one of ten children on a farm in Kosciusko, Mississippi on June 25, 1933. He was not exposed to racism until a train ride from Chicago, where he had to give up his seat for a white man. This train ride was his catalyst for fighting for civil rights. He spent nine years in the Army Air Force following high school. After his service, he enrolled in the all-black school, Jackson State College in Mississippi. The beginning of his work started in the year 1961, when he applied for University of Mississippi, which back then was an all-white school that had been segregated and should have been integrated with the Brown v. Board of Education ruling. The Brown v. the Board of Education, taking place in 1952, was a case that overruled the Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that legalized segregation. This case brought about after an African American man from Topeka filed a lawsuit saying that black and white schools were not legal. This parent was Oliver Brown. This case was taken care of by Thurgood Marshall and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The court ruled in favor of Brown and segregation became considered illegal and in violation of ... ...aces, however, when they look at the same classroom about sixty years ago they will find it less diversified. Now, people can see African American children play with the children of white people. There are children who are of mixed race, when back then these children would be shunned by both sides. The children are able to play, become friends, and be happy. They are able to have a life where they do not have to worry about getting off the street just because a white person is passing by. They do not have to worry about moving to the back just because a white person has arrived. This would not have been the case sixty years ago. This place where children of all races are able to enjoy each other’s company was the result of many years of effort and blood, not only by one person but by many courageous individuals who wanted to create a better future for their people.

Computer Development from 1970-1990

Alienation. Computerization. Employment. Mass-production. These are some of the words associated with the introduction of computers into the work environment, mainly beginning on a large scale basis in 1970 and continuing on to the present day and beyond. Between the 1970†³s and 1990†³s, the work environment was impacted significantly. This initial development of computers for use in industry and business played an important role in the development of businesses. New jobs have been created to deal with computers. Mundane, repetitive jobs have been taken over by computers. The computer has even been introduced to the management level of businesses to assist in decision making. All around the office, computers have become commonplace (Spencer 107). But what were these industries like before computers came to their assistance? Obviously, commerce functioned prior to the introduction of computers. However, employees were required to perform many tasks that automation eventually made easier. These tasks have predominantly consisted of clerical operations, such as check processing, payroll, inventory control, bookkeeping, etc. However, automation lso included other tasks at the industrial and management level such as business planning, marketing reports and sales reports. Most of these tasks were performed using pencil and paper, or in some cases, the typewriter, and every record or other document was stored by means of some filing method such as filing cabinets or book shelves. Other tasks, such as those involving the manipulation of machinery were done by hand. If a machine had to be assembled, it was assembled using â€Å"mostly-human† assembly lines. Machines were not around to assist in handling substances; substance manipulation and ata reception from chemicals was also dealt with by hand (Stern and Stern 238). In essence, many tasks that were dealt with by hand were either repetitive, dangerous, or both. As one might speculate, problems then arose from the methods of handling these tasks. Every task was subject to some type of human error, whether it was a mistake in adding, a misspelling of a name or organization, the improper filing of a certain document, etc. At times, employees were simply not able to process the volume of data coming into their workplaces. This caused companies to get behind in their operations nd records, which in turn yielded a loss in revenue. Many companies fell behind in this way because of the manual system†s inability to accommodate for the growth of the industry. In turn, this affected the management departments of businesses, which relied upon up-to-date information from their employees in order for them to make decisions on time (239). Also, workers accidentally injured themselves in some of the dangerous work environments involving machinery and volatile chemicals, because many of the employees were required to work very near to machinery or toxic chemicals, and were ot given much protection from the hazards created by the noxious vapors rising from chemicals or malfunctions in machinery. An answer to these problems needed to be Perhaps that answer lied in computers. They provided the solutions businesses and industries needed to handle repetitive and dangerous jobs. Computers were able to assist clerks in their operations. Injuries could be reduced that were caused by accidents with chemicals or machinery (237). These solutions impacted the employment aspect of industry by making jobs become safer and less repetitive. Employees began to be hired to erform different tasks as a result of the change in the tasks to be performed (de Ferranti 70). Employees began to become involved with computers in business in order to satisfy several objectives. Systems were installed for employees to assist in the reduction of record-keeping by automating most of the functions performed by the clerks. Files were automatically inserted in their proper order, and could be recovered from the computer†s memory and reviewed almost instantaneously. Also, inputting the information into the computer and allowing it to perform certain operations such as adding and sorting esulted in the reduction of errors in record-keeping operations. Computers also assisted the management of a company by providing managers or executives with up-to-date information used for decision making (Stern and Stern 237). Computers provided employees with a way to more quickly and accurately process larger volumes of business data, thus being beneficial to the company as a whole by allowing them to operate more The types of business data that many of these employees had to process include all the information received by a company. When these data are processed, their information s outputted, and is needed by the managers of the business. The managers, using these data, then establish, evaluate, and adjust the goals of the business, develop plans and standards and initiate the actions needed to accomplish them, and measure the actual performance of the company and take appropriate action when it is needed to improve the company†s performance. All of these tasks are essential to the function of any business, and the business data from them was processed using a number of steps (Dorf 135-136). First, the data must be separated into their appropriate classification. Second, the data must be sorted into a pre-arranged sequence designated by the manager or some other employee involved in the sorting process. Third, any mathematical operations that must be performed on the data are carried out. Finally, the data is summarized for use in reports. After the data has been summarized, it is stored for future use or retrieved. Sometimes the data need to be duplicated for documents or communicated to an employee (136). These employees needed to process many different types of these data. Some of these types included account reception, which involved the processing of records nvolving the reception money owed to the company by others; account payment, which handled the processing of the money that the company owed to others; payroll, which dealt with the records of employees to be paid, the pay rates of the employees, the hours that the employees worked, etc. inventory control, which encompassed the holding of records of goods on hand, the quantities of the items to be ordered by the company, and the records of the items that the company had currently run out of in stock; and marketing and sales, which determined from sales statistics the best combination of products to sell or a maximum profit for the company. It was important that each of these types was properly processed, and the computer allowed employees to more easily process this wide variety of data that was generated (Stern and Stern 238). Because employees were more easily able to manipulate the business data they received, the automation of these processes in the office allowed for greater efficiency. Clerks were no longer obligated to file documents using filing cabinets or shelves. Instead, they recorded and stored the information inside of the memory of a computer. Also, clerks could use word processing systems to minimize the need to retype erroneous pages, create standardized letter heads, and maintain letters in files containing text, providing a tremendous advantage over the use of the typewriter, which did not allow for any of these options. Sometimes letter heads did not even need to be printed; primitive office e-mail developed in the 1970†³s allowed for the quicker transmission of information to branch offices without the cost of postage or postal services and was also faster. Sending information to companies through the postal system took days while the ransmission of data with e-mail took mere seconds or minutes. By giving branch offices information more quickly, businesses enabled themselves to increase their production, because they did not need to wait to receive information or reports from other offices or departments that was being sent through the mail (251-253). This increase in production that resulted from the computer allowed for a big step in the direction of maximum efficiency for a businesses. The great efficiency potential of computers shone the brightest when their rapid speed was used to perform repetitious tasks handling these large amounts of data (Dorf 137). Handling large amounts of data allowed companies to better interact with one another, because they allowed companies to get more recent information on the production and financial well-being of their competitors. The estimated increase in the amount of business transactions between companies and people per year during the 1970†³s was 8 to 15 percent. The mass of data transmitted through lines was growing by a rate of 25 percent. Because the mass of data received by companies was growing, it was necessary to use computers to capitalize on Partly contributing to the increase in data was the improvements made in the ediums in which data was transmitted. As well as needing accurate and up-to-date information, business managements needed information that was also easier to read and comprehend. In order for information to be reviewed more efficiently and more comprehensively, graphics systems were developed to improve the readability of the information. The development of graphics in business data began in the early 1970†³s with text-drawn images of bar graphs and simple charts. The computer was utilized to create these graphs because it could prepare them quickly by immediately calling upon the data within its memory. Later, graphical input/output devices were developed to display and manipulate this data directly to some type of screen. The graphical information display monitor was (and still remains) the most effective method of presenting information to users. Clear and understandable information, as well as fast, accurate, and up-to-date information, is essential for the success of the management in The introduction of computers into the management environment naturally changed it as well. The managers of businesses altered their techniques in order to accommodate for the changes in industry and business brought on by the computer and apitalize on the benefits. These techniques changed in several ways. For instance, executives were put into closer contact with the activities that they controlled. This was because the computer enabled them to access facts from databases, immediately giving them information on the status of the department they oversaw. In some situations, the computer even allowed executives to give instructions more quickly directly to their subordinates. Also, management was affected in each of its 3 sublevels: low, middle, and top. Low management was provided with all the facts essential to the activities of the usiness such as awareness of employee activities, the availability of materials, work flow, and details about their field. Middle management was involved with the progress of the work under its control. Top management concerned itself with summarized reports and analyses that were free of the details used by middle management. By being able to process data more quickly and accurately, the computer could be used to send the appropriate information to its corresponding level more quickly, sifting through the facts and details in the business data, and discarding useless information for each level of By being able to manage data on each level more efficiently, the life of the manager was made easier by computers. Computers assisted the manager in several other processes besides error reduction and data handling. The speed at which computers work helped managers deal with time management in business. In reducing the cost for an item so that more items will be bought by the consumer, the production time should also be reduced and the efficiency of computers allowed for businesses to become cost-efficient. Besides being cost efficient where production is concerned, computers also reduce the eed for a clerical workforce. Clerical tasks, which tended to be more mundane, could be performed by computers. Clerical employee costs for the business could then be reduced, but this resulted in layoffs and alienation amongst employees. This rapid, low-cost, low-error business that computers assisted managers in running became the fuel for employees† fears about computers (Dorf 136). These fears were one of the problems produced by computers. However, in addition to some of the problems it created, it also revealed new solutions. One problem actually results from the faster rate at which computers process data. Because they process data faster, any mistakes made due to incorrect programming will be much larger since more information will have been processed incorrectly. Any manager must plan alternatives to their computerized methods just to accommodate for unexpected errors produced by unique data streaming through the computer. At many times, â€Å"bugs† in programs may not be realized until a certain unique type of data is entered and processed, and because of the large mass of data processed by the computer in businesses on a daily basis, it is only a matter of time until these hidden bugs are revealed. Even though their are some negative repercussions to using computers, businesses are made more flexible by computers because they are multi-functional and can be used to perform more than one task. Computers also allow for the establishment of control over manufacturing by allowing the management to more directly observe the function of the business by reviewing the data the computer returns about the status of the business (155-156). These examples illustrate how the computer†s impact cannot only be positive, but negative also. In order to capitalize on the positive aspects, an important factor in effective anagement with computers is detailed planning. Proper planning can allow for the smarter choosing of workers, the right amount of materials, etc. Computers can help planners optimize schedules by choosing the best employees for a type of job from an index. Computerized information storage and retrieval systems are capable of storing vast amounts of data in a centralized data bank that can be accessed from miles away. This allows access to the data from anywhere, letting business managements stationed in different branches of a company in different locations have access to the same data bank s the rest of the company. Because information does not have to physically be transferred from one place to another, planning can take place faster and with greater In addition to being most effective with proper planning, computers are used most effectively within a business of any moderate size or larger, and are most successful in business data processing operations possessing one of the following characteristics: when the business receives a large volume of data generated from transactions on a regular basis, when an operation is repeated many times in order to make investments in ebugging, development, and improvement worth the financial expenditure to have software updated, when the business has a need for information quickly; and when the business has a need for reliable and accurate results. However, the success of computers in a business is more dependent on the effectiveness of the management rather than on the actual hardware capabilities. Computers can be a useful tool for managements to control and guide businesses, but they must be used properly and to their fullest capabilities to ensure the success of the business to make them worth the investment. This investment can only be capitalized on when computers are used to their full ability. The gap between computers† capabilities and the actual use of those capabilities has been increasing since computers became more prominent in businesses in the 1970†³s and the 1980†³s. Computers often were used for very simplistic tasks such as simple arithmetic, despite the fact that they possessed the capabilities to perform more complex tasks such as controlling manufacturing operations, optimizing the transportation of products, and improving the quality of managerial decisions (144). In many cases, omputers have not reduced the cost of operations in a company, but have rather simply provided better data processing and better service. Basically, a simple principle can be seen in the use of the computer for business tasks: if the functions of the computer are used poorly, the company may actually incur financial losses. However, if the functions of the computer are used to their full potential efficiently and effectively, the financial return will definitely be positive. (145). Several general businesses have experienced positive financial return as a result of the utilization of computers. One of these businesses is banking. Between 1940 and 1970, the volume of check transactions in banks has increased 1100 percent, which is an unbelievably large mass of data to be processed. Normally, this would be the archetypal work of a bank clerk; however, because of the introduction of the computer, this immense volume can be handled with relative ease by allowing banks to process checks faster and more cost-efficiently because the computer is able to record, compute, and edit the balances of myriad†s of accounts in seconds by calling upon them in its memory (Spencer 107). When one went to the bank to process a check, his or her checks were utomatically processed then credited to or drawn against the individual†s bank accounts in hours instead of days or weeks. This made it possible for large banks to process millions of items per day. Now, the use of computers for the day-to-day processing of customer accounts and checks has become routine (107). Another use for the processing power of computers was in the stock market, where an immense volume of trading occurs daily. This large mass of trading creates an equally large mass of paperwork. In the 1970†³s, sometimes the trading needed to be halted to allow brokers to catch up with their aperwork. Every broker had to figure every transaction the day before they had to open again for business. Naturally, because they had to act quickly, brokers would also make errors. The introduction of the computer into their domain allowed brokers to process millions of accounts daily and remain in business. Also, bookkeeping errors are always avoided with the computer (provided that the data was inputted correctly by the user), and information was even posted faster (109). Without the assistance of computers, stock transactions would not be able to occur at the rates they do today. Payrolls in business ere also significantly affected by computers. Computers could generate pay reports to handle the employees of a large corporation. Because payroll involves many functions repetitively, such as earning rates, tax withholdings, net pay, year to date quantities, pay deductions, union dues, etc. it becomes a task very suitable to a computer†s purpose; it eliminates the time-consuming and tedious review of employee files and records (115). Factories and manufacturing industries did not escape the positive and negative influences of the computer either. It was predicted that computers would bring about a quiet revolution† in industry. In 1970, it was estimated that 5 percent of the GNP was produced by some means of computing. Despite this figure, many companies did not totally opt for computer systems. Instead, they employed the assistance of agencies called bureaus, â€Å"largely providing for managements who have opted out of computing (de Ferranti 65-66). † Bureaus were companies that specialized in the management of business using the computer. Instead of actually purchasing a computer, the management of a company could employ the services of the bureaus, which would assist them in the anagement of their companies the use of the computers the bureau used. In this way, the companies would be â€Å"indirectly† using computers through the bureaus to manage themselves. It was thought that the bureaus would grow more quickly than the industries they supported as a result of the large profit they received for their services. This was proven true in England, where the amount of computers purchased by 1980 was only 6 times what it had been in 1965, while the bureaus grew by a rate of 30 times. However because bureaus were very sparse in the United States, the number of computers in ndustry expanded partly as a result of them not having to invest in the services of the bureaus. Industries tended to invest in their own computer systems in order provide their management with direct control over the industry†s employees and production (66). These industries bought several types of computers in the 1980†³s, useful for various tasks. One type of machine was the Turnkey System, which was a hardware and software package that was designed to perform one specific task. As the name implies, the user â€Å"turns a key† and the machine operates automatically. The advantage to this ystem is that it may be used without any computer expertise. The disadvantage, a rather obvious problem, is that the machine can be used to perform only one task, the task that it was written to do. The other type of computer was the special-purpose computer, which could be programmed to perform a variety of tasks. The advantage to using this system is that it is versatile and can perform different tasks. However, the drawback is that computer expertise is required to operate and change the tasks of the system (Stern and Stern 262). Another type of computer system was Computer Aided Design (CAD). CAD onsisted of a system that was equipped with CAD software that could be used for the design, development, and testing of any type of equipment. It could also handle fine details in drawing, and makes use of the computer†s ability to measure to very small units. CAD allowed engineers of systems to do stress analyses, weight analyses, and structural analyses to be simulated on a model construction that appeared on the computer monitor. In essence, engineers could test something†s design before it was built to determine design flaws and save on cost (263). With a small variety of computerized systems to use, manufacturing also mployed the computer in its operations. In the 1980†³s, 20 percent of all computers were being used for manufacturing purposes. Twenty-billion dollars were spent on computers for manufacturing. The ultimate goal of automating the factory was to, as always, maximize efficiency and minimize the need for operator intervention (254). In fact, computers controlled several activities manufacturing. One such activity was called process control, which used computers to process the continuous flow of materials in a system such as in the production of chemicals in a chemical plant or oil in a refinery. The omputers were involved in measuring and regulating the flow of the fluid into the tank, the pressure in the tank, the temperature in the tank, etc. As the system monitored the tank, it would inform the user of problems and sometimes would attempt to fix the problems on its own (254). The reason computers were used in process control was because computers had the ability to operate and take data samples efficiently and for an infinite time period (until the machine eventually broke down years later). Also, while it was gathering data, the computer could monitor the levels of material and its attributes all the time to maximize safety. Sometimes process control systems were controlled with feedback mechanisms, which allowed them to evaluate and correct their own efficiency by adjusting their operation to meet certain criteria of efficiency (255). Another type of activity performed by computers in manufacturing was production control, where computers monitored, controlled, and scheduled assembly lines. In this situation, the computer was used to monitor the time spent on certain activities at given stations, specify the status of the products and tools needed for them, indicate any faulty equipment, and alert supervisors of timing problems that tend to form ueues at each station. Because computers are inanimate machines, they could be relied upon to supervise an assembly line indefinitely, which was one of the main advantages for using computers along the assembly lines. As well as having â€Å"infinite patience,† computers also could perform a repeated task identically, because the exact movements it was to follow were programmed into it, and unless another operator altered these instructions, it would not deviate from them. A good example of this uniformity resulting from computer use is in the use of it to monitor and control robots in car manufacturing Computers in manufacturing yielded many benefits to companies, both tangible, and intangible. The tangible benefits included faster processing, greater accuracy, flexibility in design modifications, independent machinery which could be run unchecked for some time, cost reduction, larger output, and an increased uniformity in the products produced because each was produced using the same abstract programmed into the computer which performed the task the same way every time (260-261). The intangible benefits included better quality control, more effective scheduling of shipments, simpler lanning requirements because the machines functioned the same way every time they were run, need for a reduced inventory, and increased job satisfaction, because the workers were free to work in less mundane positions. Workers with tedious or monotonous jobs often had little incentive to work and this therefore impacted production. However, when the computer was introduced, the workers could be put to use in more interesting tasks that did not always require repetitive work. However, some factory managements were striving for the ideal goal of manufacturing: to create the automated factory† where computers would handle every step in the manufacturing process (261-262) and would be maintenanced only occasionally by manufacturing supervisors. This goal would certainly increase revenue for the company, however, it would also increase unemployment and poverty throughout the country, so it would be a very unrealistic possibility that factories will ever become fully automated. The use of computers in business and industry increased dramatically over the period between 1970 and 1980, where it was estimated that every businessman was involved with computers and their techniques in one way or another. Such businessmen were called â€Å"New Businessmen† because they were involved with the new field of computers, and every new businessman needed at least a basic knowledge of the computer for employment. In the mid 1970†³s, the total number of terminals installed in businesses and industry was estimated to be greater than 7000. The amount of terminals explicitly used for business exceeded 250,000 by 1980 (de Ferranti 70). The government use of computers surpassed businesses† use of computers however, and was operating 20,000 machines in 1970, which means they were using 3 times the machines that the people were using at that time (70-71). In 1974, the Wall Street Journal conducted a survey on the computer use in businesses, surveying their subscribers. Two-thirds of the surveyed group said that their companies owned at least 1 computer. Ninety percent of the large companies surveyed owned a computer, and 73 percent of companies employing less than 100 people owned a computer. The leading applications used by the companies were; accounting, with 76 percent; sales analysis, with 46 percent; and inventory control, with 43 percent. Clearly the nation†s economy, as a result of the investment for computers and the use of them in industry, had been affected (Dorf 137). Even in 1970, businesses were connected to online systems that allowed them to transfer data to other companies. The ways of accessing online services were increasing at that time, and allowed information to be inputted into one computer and sent to others in the area quickly (de Ferranti 67-68). Cable connections were used to connect systems to local branch companies to allow for quick information transmission. By 1980, the connection speed of a computer was one-third of the time it used to take in the 1970s. This increase in connection speed led to the use of businesses spending more hours online ransmitting data. This was a big increase from the time users in plants used to spend on the phone with other companies — 6 minutes. This also increased a company†s expenditure on phone line connections. In house machines also enabled the â€Å"New Businessmen† to transmit work to terminals in their homes and back to manipulate the information they need without having to physically transport it (70). However, none of these achievements in computers was without some cost by the United States and its population. In 1970, $25. 5 billion were spent to utilize computers for all purposes. In 1975, $51. billion were spent for the same purpose, which was a triple of what the expenditures were 10 years before. About $8. 3 billion of the $25. 5 billion spent in 1970 was spent on equipment. Managements often began purchasing computer power as if it were a utility like natural gas or electricity. However, the revenues generated by the installations of these systems most likely offset the actual cost for the systems (Dorf 137). In essence, the machines paid for themselves by allowing the company to increase its efficiency and increase its overall revenue. And what about the common working man? Computers were generally a benefit o the working man or trained employee because they provided better jobs . However, one-fourth of the computer jobs were left to computer specialists in the 1970†³s. Another effect of computers on workers in the 1980†³s was alienation. Alienation was a term used to describe those people who were directly affected by automation in jobs or in everyday life. Computers created a feeling of displacement and dissatisfaction in them, and felt that computers would take the place of human labor and activities. A survey in the 1980†³s revealed that almost 50 out of the 1513 people surveyed felt alienated. When omputers began to replace the jobs of some men, they lost pride in themselves. They felt that they were being told that their jobs were too menial and worthless after being told that computer would be performing them. Many workers were affected emotionally because they felt that they had become inferior to computers (Stern and Stern 266). Employers had to be take steps to quell the discomfort felt by some workers over the introduction of the computer into their lives. And steps were taken to prevent alienation in the workplace. A famous experiment conducted by Elton Mayo and Fritz J. Roethlisberger at the Western Electric Co. in Hawthorne, NJ, from 1927-1932 called the Hawthorne Experiment accidentally revealed a method of preventing alienation. Mayo and Roethlisberger were studying what balance of physical conditions, labor, and coffee breaks would maximize productivity. However, regardless of the ways they changed the physical conditions, the productivity rose. Upon investigating by interviewing the workers, they were told by the workers that they were flattered that anyone would take notice of them and wish to do an experiment that would benefit them, so they felt as if they should work their best (267). Thus, they disco

Assessment Practice in Classroom Essay Example

Assessment Practice in Classroom Essay Example Assessment Practice in Classroom Essay Assessment Practice in Classroom Essay Assessment practice in classroom Students’ assessment is one of the essential principles of any pedagogical program; it plays a crucial part in the educational process. According to McMillan (2011), attaining a perfect classroom assessment requires meaningful learning goals and standards that should be set before commencing classroom assessment procedures. Monitoring students’ progress will help teachers to adjust their instructions effectively to take students to the next level of learning. Diagnostic assessment, formative assessment, and summative assessment are major types of classroom assessment, and together they form the assessment cycle. McMillan (2011) points out that teachers must use achievement information derived from summative assessment to provide instructions, to attain the purpose of the assessment, and to give performance feedback to students and parents. Pre assessment or diagnostic assessment is the first step in classroom assessment that teachers do before commencing a new learning activity, to provide them with information about students’ pre knowledge, tendencies, and motivations. It is a crucial procedure needed to proceed to the next step, which is formative assessment. This type of classroom assessment is given during a learning activity to detect the student’s progress and adjust teaching according to possible new requirements. After completing the learning activity, summative assessment takes part in the process. This assessment is intended to determine whether long-term learning goals have been met, in addition to providing feedback and measuring the level of success that has been obtained; students can use outcomes of a summative assessment formatively to guide their learning. In order to make this process effective, teachers should perform consistent assessments that provide reliable results because â€Å"unreliable assessments cannot be valid† (Eggen, 2009, p. 36). Unclear directions can give inconsistent information that lead to unintended negative consequences. Recurrent failure in students with learning disabilities can lead to a further failure; teachers can support those students by encouraging them, and trying to rebuild their self-confidence (Robinson, 2008). Those students need special materials and learning strategies to deal with their learning problems. Diagnosing the students first, can help teachers to make right decisions later, considering each student’s individuality. There are several methods to be used in the classroom to ensure success according to Robinson (2008). For instance, the language experience approach and reading â€Å"usually guarantees interest, as it is one in which the student has a personal involvement. It is implemented with them and for them, it belongs to them. It allows the pupil to become involved in the learning process. Confidence and success are usually guaranteed, as developing your own stories based on everyday activities is likely to make the task easier to learn. Reading ones own story, for example, should be easier as writers should remember what the story was about† (Robinson, 2008, p. 306). This method represents an example of formative assessment in a classroom. The final stage of assessment represents the process of summative assessment. Robinson (2008) suggests that reading the story onto a tape recorder could be beneficial for revision, by revising the students’ work, teachers will provide feedback to students, and may want to set forth new instructional plans to promote students’ learning. Classroom assessment is a teachers’ powerful educational tool, especially when they use it to diagnose students with learning difficulties, and make modifications to their learning materials and instructions. McMillan (2011) argues that in order to make the assessment procedure successful in case of teaching students with learning difficulties, teachers should observe students precisely to give accurate indications of their performance. Employing the assessment cycle in classroom reinforces learning and improves its quality. Making modifications that conform to learners’ capabilities can positively influence them educationally. (514) words References: McMillan, James H. (2010) Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction, 5th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Dec-10 Eggen, P. (2009) Educational Psychology: windows on classrooms, 8th Edition. Pearson/Australia, Jan-09 Robinson, G. (2008b). Understanding literacy and numeracy. In P. Foreman (Ed. ), Inclusion in action (2nd ed. , pp. 303-307). South Melbourne, Victoria: Thompson.